Psycho
Paper 1
pathology
Definitions of abnormality
Statistical Infrequency AO1
This definition states abnormality is when an individual has a less common or rarer characteristic than most of the population. It uses numbers to define abnormality which means it is an objective measure. Abnormality is implied if the behaviour is more than two standard deviations away from the mean and therefore the behaviour is in the top or bottom 2% of the population.
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For example, the average IQ score is 100. The 2% of the population who score below 70 are considered abnormal and could be diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder. But those who are in the top 2% above 130 are also abnormal.
AO3
+ Objective & free from bias. Reliable measure as it is consistent between clinicians.
- Does not distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviour e.g. a high IQ is still abnormal.
Deviation from Social Norms AO1
Society has certain established norms of behaviour, which provide expectations about how people ‘should’ behave. These norms are passed on through socialisation. Abnormality is implied if the behaviour is not within these established norms of a society.
An example is people who have antisocial personality disorder (formerly psychopathy) have a failure to conform to ‘lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour’. Due to their lack of empathy, they tend to operate outside of cultural norms and can be considered abnormal due to this.
​AO3
+ Distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour and helps to know when support is needed.
- It is not a consistent definition as it changes across time & culture e.g. same sex relationships.
Failure to Function Adequately AO1
Abnormality is judged as inability to cope with the demands of everyday living. Inability to function or cope has been defined by Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) using an objective list which includes the following items:
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Inability to go to work / go to school
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Failure to maintain basic hygiene
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Behaviour is maladaptive, irrational or dangerous
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Cannot manage own personal distress and anxiety
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Causes distress for others (observer discomfort)
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Causing themselves or others harm
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AO3
+ Both subjective (patient’s view considered) & objective (criteria). Comprehensive definition.
- Some people can appear to function but be severely disturbed e.g. Harold Shipman killed 250 of his patients.
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Deviation from Ideal Mental Health AO1
This is a positive definition as it defines abnormality as the absence of signs of good mental health.
Jahoda (1958) developed criteria for these ideals
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Accurate perception of reality
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Positive attitude to him/herself (good self-esteem and of lack guilt)
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Self-actualisation – ability to reach potential
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Resistance to stress
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Environmental mastery
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Be independent of other people (autonomy)
AO3
+ A positive definition. Gives patient’s something to aspire towards.
- Sets unrealistic expectations. Too high as most of society would be abnormal.
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Characteristics of disorders
There is no AO3 for this topic
Behavioural: Things people are doing
Emotional: Things people are feeling
Cognitive:​ Things people are thinking
Phobias
​Behavioural: Avoidance of the phobic stimuli and panic (physiological response in the body)
Emotional: Anxiety and fear
Cognitive:​ Cognitive distortions, irrational beliefs
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Depression​
Behavioural: Disrupted sleep (too much / little), disrupted eating (too much / little), reduced activity
Emotional: Extreme sadness, anger
Cognitive:​ Irrational beliefs, negative biases, poor concentration​
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OCD​
Behavioural: External compulsions (repetitive behaviours) in an attempt to stop the anxiety, avoidance
Emotional: Anxiety caused by the irrational thoughts, distress
Cognitive:​ Irrational beliefs, awareness of the irrationality but inability to stop the thoughts
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Behaviourist approach to explaining phobias
AO1​​
Mowrer (1960) used learning theory to propose the behavioural explanation of phobias through a two-process model:
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Phobias are acquired or initiated through classical conditioning (learning through association)
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Phobias are maintained or continued through operant conditioning (learning through consequences)
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Key terms:
Unconditioned – automatic and not learnt
Conditioned – learnt through pairing
Stimuli – something in the external environment
Response – a reaction to something
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Initiation of a phobia​
According to the behavioural approach a phobia is acquired through learning an association. Being bitten (UCS) creates an automatic fear response (UCR). But when a dog (NS) is associated with being bitten (UCS) through pairing, the dog (now CS) then produces a fear response (CR) on its own.
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Before conditioning: UCS > UCR
During conditioning: UCS + NS > UCR
After conditioning: CS > CR
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Maintenance of a phobia
The maintenance of phobias can be explained through operant conditioning. Operant conditioning takes place when behaviour is reinforced i.e. the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is increased if the outcome is rewarding.
A person avoids a feared object to reduce anxiety and is therefore rewarding. This is an example of negative reinforcement because a person avoids the situation to escape from the unpleasant feeling of fear. This consequence means the behaviour will be repeated.
Case study: Little Albert
The case study of Little Albert by Watson and Rayner (1920) is the most famous case of conditioning a phobic response. Little Albert was conditioned to associate the neutral stimulus of a white rat with a conditioned response of fear after the rat has been continuously paired with the unconditioned stimulus of a loud noise. This phobia was then generalised to other furry white objects. Little Albert showed anxiety when exposed to a fur coat, cotton wool and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard.
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​​​​ AO3
+ Real world application - treatments of phobias
+ Case study evidence: Little Albert
- Too reductionist - does not consider cognitions e.g. social phobias
- Ignores evolutionary factors (Bounton, 2007)
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Behaviourist approach to treating phobias
AO1​​
Badde
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​​​​ AO3
+ SD is effective (Gilroy 2003) 42 ppt with spider phobia
+ SD suitable for diverse ppt
+ Flooding is cost effective - NHS
- High attrition rates flooding
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Cognitive approach to explaining depression
AO1​​
Interference is w
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​​​​ AO3
+ Grazzioli & Terry (2007) - 65 pregnant women
+ Real life application to CBT / REBT
- Reductionist - ignores biology
- Blames the client and ignores situation
- Ellis' model can only explain reactive depression
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Cognitive approach to treating depression
AO1​​
Retrieval failure is where inform​
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​​​​ AO3
+/- March (2007) 81% CBT, 86% CBT and drug therapy
- Relies on being motivation but symptom is avolition
- Too focused on thinking and not clients environment
- Not suitable if deep rooted childhood trauma
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Biological approach to explaining OCD
Eyewitness testimony is the a
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​​​​ AO3 (for both topics)
+ Nedstadt (2010) concordance rates of 68% MZ / 31% DZ
- Cromer (2007) 1/2 of OCD ppts experienced trauma
+ SSRIs are effective at reducing symptoms (link to serotonin)
+ Menzies (2007) brain scans of OCD and family members - both had reduced grey matter
+ Biologically deterministic
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Biological approach to treating OCD
Eyewitness testimony is the account of someone who has seen or witnessed a crime. It is used in the criminal justice system to help convict offenders.
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Misleading information is a key factor that can reduce the accuracy of eye witness testimony and is incorrect information given to an eyewitness after an event.
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Leading questions
AO1​​
Procedure: 45 part
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​​​​ AO3 (for both topics)
+ Soomro (2009) - 17 studies SSRIs - 70% effective
+ Cost effective and non disruptive
- Side effects e.g. vision, sex drive
- Publication bias due to funding from pharmaceuticals
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